Describes the benefits of thermal displacement ventilation (TDV), which delivers cool air just above the floor at a very low velocity, after which it falls toward the floor and spreads across the room. As the air picks up heat from occupants and equipment, it rises to the ceiling and is exhausted from the space. Contaminants, including germs from the occupants, are carried up and out of the space instead of being mixed with the room air as they are with conventional ventilation schemes. TDV systems differ from underfloor air distribution systems in that they do not require a raised floor and they supply air at lower velocities. 2p.

Advises on heating and insulation of schools, detailing perception of thermal comfort; building orientation, shading, and glazing issues; heating systems; and insulation. Additional considerations for specialized teaching areas, students with special needs, and planning new buildings and additions are also discussed. A flow diagram for assessing thermal comfort, heating and insulation survey, and 13 references are included. 56p.

Examines the potential of environmentally-conscious school design for improving education. This book provides an assessment of the potential human health and performance benefits of improvements in the building envelope, indoor air quality, lighting, and acoustical quality. The report also presents an assessment of the overall building condition and student achievement, and offers an analysis of and recommendations for planning and maintaining green schools including research considerations. Includes 390 references. 180p.

A suitable physical climate is needed if one is to feel comfortable and to be efficient at work. The environment feels comfortable when one is barely aware of the climatic conditions. It is only when the temperature decreases or increases beyond one's comfort limits that one becomes aware of discomfort. This discusses age and gender differences, body temperature regulation, adjusting to different temperatures, working in extreme temperatures, and problem-solving solutions with optimum conditions.

Provides the regulatory framework in support of the United Kingdom's building regulations for the adequate provision of ventilation in schools. These guidelines consider the design of school buildings to meet the ventilation requirements of both The School Premises Regulations and the Building Regulations Part F (Ventilation). Sections of the document address ventilation of special areas, indoor air quality and ventilation, ventilation strategies, acoustics, fire precautions, natural ventilation, and system design options. 62p.

This study addresses indoor air quality and general conditions problems in schools throughout the United States. Tools employed to investigate conditions include a nationwide, web-based survey, characterization of actual operating conditions in schools through field audits and diagnostic tests, and retrofits in problem schools. Survey results found temperature to be by far the greatest comfort complaint in regular classrooms, with indoor air quality (IAQ) and then humidity being the next greatest areas of complaints. Ventilation problems were found at each of eight audited schools. These problems appear to be occurring due to a combination of factors including lack of maintenance, lack of knowledge of the systems and in some cases poor system design. Four small retrofit projects were also completed. The results from this project indicate that without substantial funding for and prioritization of school maintenance, widespread significant school improvements will not be realized. [Authors' abstract] 17p.

Provides guidance concerning the use and implementation of displacement ventilation (DV) for K-12 schools. It serves architects, engineers, and educators seeking to understand why DV is beneficial, addresses the implications of installing DV in schools, and details a design procedure for DV systems in school applications. It contains recommendations from a range of sources, including PIER research, ASHRAE Guidelines and Standards, and practical experience gained in the design, installation, and performance monitoring of DV systems in two California schools. Topics covered include general design requirements for classrooms, air supply characteristics, diffuser specifications, architectural design issues, load calculations, system sizing, HVAC design options, and estimating energy savings. Case studies from six installations are included, as are 42 references, a glossary, and numerous figures and tables. 123p.

Covers HVAC design considerations for displacement ventilation systems, drawn from completed research of the project, a computational flow dynamics analysis, and the results of the first demonstration classroom. The report addresses diffuser selection and layout, load calculations and system sizing and energy modeling options. The report also describes HVAC system requirements for displacement ventilation and control options. For the design phase, this report covers design requirements for TDV, load calculation procedures, energy modeling, and equipment selection. For the construction phase, the report documents show typical diffuser locations, ductwork layout, control details, and installation requirements. 23p.

Documents the performance monitoring results of a displacement ventilation demonstration project at Kinoshita Elementary in San Juan Capistrano, California. The report also documents the processes of design, financing and construction of the demonstration classrooms. The unit is designed to supply a steady 65-degree supply temperature, with variable air volume to maintain comfort in the space. This report assesses the performance of the unit in meeting specifications, and a comparison of comfort, indoor air quality, and energy use with a control classroom that is served by a conventional 4-ton packaged rooftop unit. 36p.

Documents the development of a unit that can tightly control supply air temperature in a classroom thermal displacement ventilation (TDV) cooling system, in response to varying load and outdoor conditions. Also described are the steps that the manufacturer has taken towards making it a production unit. The report provides an evaluation of the unit with all available data, and identifies the steps required to make this a production unit. 20p.

Serves as the final project report for Project 2, Thermal Displacement Ventilation (DV) in Schools, under California's PIER IEQ-K12 Program. Key outcomes included the following: 1)Two demonstration DV systems were installed, commissioned, and monitored in two classrooms; one in southern and one in northern California. 2)Results of the DV demonstration classrooms showed that significant energy savings are possible. 3)Other results of the DV demonstration classrooms showed improved IAQ and acoustics with acceptable humidity levels. 4)Teacher feedback was positive for the DV demonstration classrooms. 5)The demonstration classrooms confirmed that DV provides good thermal comfort for classrooms with normal ceiling heights (9 feet). 6)A supply of 1,100 cfm of 65-degree air is sufficient for most classrooms in California climates. 7)The use of a tuned VAV control strategy will optimize energy savings. 8)DV can be achieved today using a variety of HVAC system designs. 9)DV provides many compelling benefits including energy savings. 43p.

Provides background information on the potential energy use, indoor air quality and acoustic benefits of displaced ventilation as well as field experience with DV in schools and commercial buildings. The applications that could benefit from use of displacement ventilation are described including facility requirements, acoustic requirements, climate-related factors, and indoor air quality. Displacement ventilation system requirements for K-12 schools are defined, including diffuser requirements, HVAC requirements, and optional HVAC system features. Mechanical system options are described including central (chiller-based) plants, packaged direct expansion (DX) variable air volume systems and packaged single zone direct expansion units. Alternative control strategies are discussed and diffuser options are presented. Includes nine references. 15p.

This paper on adaptive comfort offers the basic scientific and practical information on adaptive comfort and discusses the impact of air speed on thermal comfort. 8p.

Offers guidance to help school building managers and operators understand the process of moisture management. It explains why controlling humidity is important and what settings to choose. It also advises on how to operate and maintain various types of humidity control systems, minimize both occupant complaints and energy bills, improve operations and maintenance of existing equipment, and make selections for equipment replacement. 30p.

A field intervention experiment was conducted in two classes of 10-year-old children. Average air temperatures were reduced from 23.6oC to 20oC and outdoor air supply rates were increased from 5.2 to 9.6 L/s per person in a 2x2 crossover design, each condition lasting a week. Tasks representing 8 different aspects of school work, from reading to mathematics, were performed during appropriate lessons and the children marked visual-analogue scales each week to indicate SBS symptom intensity. Increased ventilation rate increased work rate in addition, multiplication and number checking (P<0.05), and subtraction (P<0.06). Reduced temperature increased work rate in subtraction and reading (P<0.001), and reduced errors when checking a transcript against a recorded voice reading aloud (P<0.07). Reduced temperature at increased ventilation rate increased work rate in a test of logical thinking (P<0.03). This experiment indicates that improving classroom conditions can substantially improve the performance of schoolwork by children. [Authors' abstract] 368-372p.

Summarizes a general HVAC load calculation for a hypothetical single-level classroom building in coastal Southern California, and an identical building in Sacramento, including accommodations for thermal displacement ventilation (TDV). Subsequent sections of the report provide a schematic description of three design options for applying TDV in the hypothetical classroom building. For each of the three options, a summary of the system design, major components, HVAC sequences of operation, and estimated capital costs are indicated. For each design option, an effort has been made to address the relative advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of each TDV design option, and to highlight differences from conventional HVAC design approaches. A general schematic of the system layout, room layout and room section are included for each system design. 18p.

Documents the requirements for new products designed specifically for thermal displacement ventilation (TDV), with the objective of identifying new products for TDV that are not currently available. The identification of new products springs from the TDV design charrette, system design options study, and market barriers study performed in this California research project. 12p.

Tenth grade students from Westview High School in Portland, Oregon, decided to tackle the question of whether room temperature affects student performance. Their teachers and club advisors supervised the study. The team conducted several aptitude tests on 9th graders in classrooms with varying temperatures to determine how well they performed. This summarizes how they conducted the test and what they found. The data was not strong enough to conclude exactly the amount of effect that temperature variation has on attention span.

Reports on a study to documents the difference between the occupant's perception of performance in a LEED-certified higher education building with a higher education building that is not LEED certified. The details of the physical conditions were obtained by measuring the noise levels, lighting levels, and thermal comfort conditions at the two buildings over a period of two days in addition to contextual information on the two buildings. Occupants' perceptions were documented through web-based surveys. It was found that LEED certification did not influence the perception of the occupants. Furthermore, it was found that even though the buildings meet the recommended standards, occupants often complained about various parameters. Daylighting and thermal comfort contributed to better IEQ, and had a positive affect occupant' perception of productivity and performance. Includes 38 references. 68p.

Presents conclusions from computational flow dynamics analysis of various classrooms in this California research into displacement ventilation in schools: 1) Sufficient cooling and thermal comfort can be provided through two displacement diffusers, providing 65- degree supply air. 2)A 9-foot ceiling is sufficient for thermal displacement ventilation. Benefits of stratification are seen with high (12-foot) ceilings; as a result, less air is required to maintain the same room setpoint, for the same design cooling loads. 3)Marginal comfort is maintained at locations close to the diffusers. The temperatures at floor level are cool (67-68 degrees). Seated students should be situated at a distance of at least 4 feet from the corner diffusers, to stay comfortable. 4) Lighting loads contribute less heat to the occupied zone than occupant or equipment loads. 5) Displacement ventilation shows improvements in ventilation effectiveness, as evidenced by lower CO2 levels and a lower mean age of air in the occupied zone. 66p.

Presents a report on the coordination of research for this study of thermal displacement ventilation (TDV) in California schools. The existing literature was reviewed to determine important design factors on TDV performance. The ceiling height, the location of the heat sources, and the convection heat flow at the wall impact the temperature stratification. Design guidelines were formed from results of computational flow dynamics (CFD) analysis and experimental data. These guidelines consist of predictions of floor temperature, the temperature difference between head and foot level, and ventilation effectiveness. The CFD and experimental results can support the existing design guidelines, or serve as the basis for new guidelines. Includes 30 references. 12p.

Specifies the combinations of indoor thermal environmental factors and personal factors that will produce thermal environmental conditions acceptable to a majority of occupants within a space. The standard addresses temperature, thermal radiation, humidity, air speed, activity, and clothing. 30p.

"...an air temperature of 65-68 degrees Fahrenheit at shoulder height for kindergarten and primary-grade students, and of 68- 0 degrees for older students, is healthful and comfortable. Convection causes air temperatures to vary with height in any given space. The difference in temperature between the floor and the 5-foot level should not vary by more than 3 degrees Fahrenheit. The relative humidity in a space for learning strongly influences the comfort of the individual. The comfort index varies with respect to both temperature and humidity. At temperatures of about 72 degrees Fahrenheit, a relative humidity of 60 percent is quite acceptable. As air temperatures rise , however, the relative humidity should decrease if comfort is to be maintained...keep the humidity in the vicinity of 40 percent." p241

Discusses the full-scale mockup classrooms developed to determine the supply airflow and supply air temperature conditions necessary to meet classroom cooling loads and maintain thermal comfort in this California research. Specifications for prototypical classrooms were developed to be representative of cooling loads and operating conditions found in modern classrooms. These specifications were translated into building models, and energy simulations were run to determine boundary conditions for a range of cooling loads and conditions. 17p.

The prevalence of prefabricated, portable classrooms (portables, relocatables, RCs) has increased due to class size reduction initiatives and limited resources. Classroom mechanical wall-mount heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems may function improperly or not be maintained; lower ventilation rates may impact indoor air and environmental quality (IEQ). Materials in portables may off-gas volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including formaldehyde, as a function of age, temperature, and humidity. For a pilot study, public K-12 schools located in or serving target areas within five Los Angeles County communities were identified. In two communities where school districts (SD) consented, 1-3 randomly selected portables, one newer and one older, and one main building control classroom from each participating school were included. Sampling was conducted over a five-day school week in the cooling and heating seasons, or repeated twice in the cooling season. Measurements included passive samplers for VOCs, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, and air exchange rate (AER) calculation; indoor air temperature and humidity; technician walk-through surveys; an interview questionnaire above HVAC system operation and maintenance (O and M). Measured classroom AER were low, formaldehyde concentrations were below the state indoor air guideline 'target level', and concentrations of most target VOCs were low. O and M questionnaire results suggested insufficient training and communication between custodians and SD offices concerning HVAC systems. Future studies should attempt larger sample sizes and cover larger geographical areas but continue to assess multiple IEQ parameters during occupied hours. Teachers, custodians, and SD staff must be educated on the importance of adequate ventilation with filtered outdoor air. [Author's abstract] 448p.

This report includes a general framework for thinking about thermal comfort at Middlebury College, a thermal comfort policy, policy implementation, and references. The goal of this report is to help achieve a productive environment for learning and working, while responsibly addressing economic and environmental factors. 12p.

The new "Property Maintenance Code of New York State", section 602.4 for "Occupiable work spaces", requires that "indoor occupiable work spaces be supplied with heat during the period from September 15th to May 31st to maintain a temperature of not less than 65ºF (18ºC) during the period the spaces are occupied." The only exceptions are for processing spaces (coolers or freezers) and vigorous physical activities areas (Gymnasiums). This is a change in mandated operating requirements.

The origin and development of the adaptive approach to thermal comfort is explained. A number of the developments in the application of the theory are considered and the origin of the differences between adaptive thermal comfort and the ‘rational’ indices is explored. The application of the adaptive approach to thermal comfort standards is considered and recommendations made as to the best comfort temperature, the range of comfortable environments and the maximum rate of change of indoor temperature. The application of criteria of sustainability to thermal standards for buildings is considered. [Authors' abstract]

This report examines how indoor air quality (IAQ) affects a child's ability to learn and provides several case studies of schools that have successfully addressed their indoor air problems, the lessons learned from that experience, and what long-term practices and policies emerged from the effort. The report covers the effects from building-related illnesses, from mild symptoms of distress, the estimated loss in performance, measured loss in performance, and the measured effects of temperature and humidity. Final comments provide information on the "IAQ Tools for Schools Kit" that schools can use to improve and maintain good indoor air quality. 4p.

Description of a program adopted by the Davis School District to assess classroom temperature and humidity and to take actions when temperatures are too high. 2p.

This is review of research that examines the hypothesis that the thermal environment affects academic achievement at various grade levels within the school. Some of the research dates back to the 1930's, though most research cited here took place in the 1960's. 3p.

Examines building design and construction that helps deliver both superior air quality, occupant thermal comfort, and minimize energy consumption. Explores an integrated building systems approach that combines the principles of "directed air flow control" and "demand controlled ventilation" where ventilation is effectively delivered to the occupant, based on loading, that can be applied to all types of indoor air quality situations in all types of buildings. Highlighted are savings and return of investment data for the traditional "green building" general design strategy. Case studies provide examples of this high performance IAQ design. Key differences and advantages of a displacement ventilation design classroom versus conventional mixing ventilation systems are examined along with the expected benefits of a heating, ventilation, air conditioning school displacement design. 15p.

Information on equipment and techniques that school facility personnel may use to evaluate IAQ conditions are discussed in this bulletin. The focus is on the IAQ parameters of air flow, air temperature, relative humidity, as well as carbon dioxide and the equipment used to measure these factors. Reasons for measurement and for when the measurement of these parameters is warranted, along with guidance for the interpretation of the data obtained, are covered. This is followed by an overview of equipment types that are available to quantify the specific parameters; a comparison table presents key factors that differentiate the types of equipment available. Various measurement techniques, such as measuring a rooms air velocity, are summarized along with the methodologies recommended for obtaining useful data. Some of the common problems encountered when measuring IAQ are described. It is claimed that with a good understanding of the dynamics of the key IAQ parameters and a modest investment in monitoring equipment, school facilities staff can provide quick, cost-effective responses to IAQ complaints and establish a program that can identify potential IAQ problem areas. (Contains 5 tables and 10 references.) 9p.

"Temperature, relative humidity, air movement, odor, and air cleanliness are important when providing a comfortable environment for learning. The human organism is highly adaptive, but a student cannot attend, perceive, or process information easily when his or her physical environment is uncomfortable." "Air temperatures of 68 degrees to 70 degrees, 30 inches above the floor (20 degrees to 21 degrees C at 76cm) for primary grade students engaged in sedentary classroom activities and temperatures of 68 degrees to 74 degrees, 30 inches above the floor (20 degrees to 23 degrees C at 76cm) for older students seem to be both healthful comfortable during the heating season." p64-65

Advocates air-conditioning for schools to improve educational productivity. Explains the economics of air-conditioning, the physiology of cooling bodies, the relation of learning to thermal comfort, and the integration of air-conditioning into modernization projects. The necessity and economy of air conditioning for schools with large open-space learning areas and for those with year-round usage is emphasized. 25p.

Reviews physical and sensory needs for school interiors, including carbon dioxide reduction, access to water fountains, thermal comfort, and the color selection and placement.

Reviews the use of chart recorders and data loggers to continuously record humidity and temperature, with a goal of identifying problem areas. Instrument alarm and alert features, data handling and downloading, and calibration are also covered.

Discusses us of data loggers to accurately assess thermal conditions in schools. Selection, installation, and data retrieval and analysis are covered.

This study presents a method for evaluating and optimising environmental comfort parameters of school buildings during the preliminary stages of design. In order to test the method, 39 existing public school building designs in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, had their plans analysed and characterised in relation to their influence on environmental comfort. Four aspects of comfort were considered: thermal, acoustic, natural lighting and functionality. Although conflicts between different comfort parameters are apparent, results show that multi-criteria optimisation can be applied as a design tool during the creative process. Maximisation of various aspects of comfort simultaneously was shown to be impossible, but compromise solutions could be found. [Authors' abstract]

Summarizes the results of a recent study to determine if increased outdoor air supply and lower classroom temperatures would improve student performance. The experimental approach and interventions of the study are described, and the results indicate that an increase in ventilation rates from 6.4 to 20.1 cfm (3 to 9 L/s) could improve student performance by 8-14 percent, while modest temperature reductions could improve performance by 2-4 percent.

Discusses the solar reflectance and thermal emittance properties of various roofing materials, with an emphasis on those that offer high values in these area and lower heating and cooling costs. Also covered are some state efforts, product advancements, and LEED incentives for cool roofing.

Defines displacement ventilation (DV) and describes its benefits to air quality, energy savings, noise control, and comfort. Also included is a comparison of DV to under-floor air distribution (UFAD), examples of schools that use DV, and architectural considerations for DV installation.

This paper presents the results of an extensive post occupancy study of 15 schools in the city of Campinas, SP, Brazil. The learning environments were analyzed as to thermal, acoustical, visual, and functional comfort and possible simple solutions to improve the quality of the learning environment. Classrooms and recreation areas were observed and critical comfort conditions were measured with equipment. School directors, teachers, employees and students were questioned as to their perception and evaluation of the comfort conditions and given the opportunity to express their satisfaction and desires about their learning spaces. A low level of intervention toward comfort on the part of users was attributed to discipline codes that restrict student behavior.

Describes campus energy-saving strategies, emphasizing temperature control and campaigns to turn off lights and computers when not in use.

Describes the benefits of window film that can limit solar heat gain, glare, and deterioration of furnishings from ultraviolet radiation. Minimal shattering protection is also obtained when these films are applied, but safety films (which can also control light) are required if window strengthening is sought.

Presents a critical review of evidence for direct associations between these aspects of indoor environmental quality (IEQ) and performance or attendance. Evidence on indirect connections potentially linking IEQ to performance or attendance is also summarized. Regarding direct associations, little strongly designed research was available. Persuasive evidence links higher indoor concentrations of NO2 to reduced school attendance, and suggestive evidence links low ventilation rates to reduced performance. Regarding indirect associations, many studies link indoor dampness and microbiologic pollutants (primarily in homes) to asthma exacerbations and respiratory infections, which in turn have been related to reduced performance and attendance.

The prevalence of prefabricated, portable classrooms (portables) for United States public schools has increased; in California, approximately one of three students learn inside portables. Limited research has been conducted on indoor air and environmental quality in American schools, and almost none in portables. Available reports and conference proceedings suggest problems from insufficient ventilation due to poor design, operation, and/or maintenance of heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems; most portables have one mechanical, wall-mounted HVAC system. A pilot assessment was conducted in Los Angeles County, including measurements of integrated ventilation rates based on a perfluorocarbon tracer gas technique and continuous monitoring of temperature and relative humidity. Measured ventilation rates were low. Compared with relevant standards, results suggested adequate ventilation and associated conditioning of indoor air for occupant comfort were not always provided to these classrooms. Adequate ventilation has the potential to mitigate concentrations of chemical pollutants, particles, carbon dioxide, and odors in portable and traditional classrooms, which should lead to a reduction in reported health outcomes, e.g., symptoms of 'sick building syndrome', allergies, asthma. Investigations of school indoor air and environmental quality should include continuous temperature and relative humidity data with inexpensive instrumentation as indicators of thermal comfort, and techniques to measure ventilation rates. [Authors' abstract]

Reports the result of experiments that tested the effect of temperature, lighting, and noise on cognition and sense well-being in high school students. Students remembered fewer words at 27 degrees Celsius than at 21 degrees. 1500 lux illumination yielded better long-term recall than 300 lux, as did a noise level of 38 decibels versus 58 decibels.

Controlling humidity in building spaces once was limited to specific areas such as computer rooms, where air that was too moist could corrode electrical contacts and air that was too dry could result in damaging static electricity. But growing concerns over indoor air quality (IAQ) and an awareness of the role that relative humidity plays in health, comfort, and productivity has made humidity control an important issue in most commercial and institutional facilities. This article discusses causes of high and low humidity and examines corrections that can be made.

Features six articles on heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems for schools. Examines how to avoid air temperature complaints when choosing a system; special system features; engineers, indoor air quality, and schools; mechanical systems noise in classrooms; operation and management issues related to design; and details on bids and bonds. Contains 16 figures and charts; each article includes references.

In recognition of the significant impact of ventilation on energy use, combined with concerns over indoor air quality, the International Energy Agency (IEA) inaugurated the Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre in 1979. The AIVC offers industry and research organisations technical support aimed at optimising ventilation technology, produces a series of guides and technical notes, holds annual conferences and workshops, and publishes a quarterly newsletter.

The Society is organized for the sole purpose of advancing the arts and sciences of heating, ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration for the public's benefit through research, standards writing, continuing education and publications.

Provides information for public health professionals, building professionals, and others who seek scientific information about the effects of IAQ on people's health or work performance. School-specific sections include Temperature and School Work Performance, Ventilation Rates and School Performance, Ventilation Rates and Absences in Offices and Schools, and Daylight, View, and School and Office Work Performance.

NCEF's resource list of links, books, and journal articles on high performance school facilities, including sustainability and green design issues, cost and funding concerns, and educational and community benefits.

NCEF's resource list of links, books, and journal articles on heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems in school facilities, including geothermal heating systems.

NCEF's resource list of links, books, and journal articles examining the association between student achievement and the physical environment of school buildings.

NCEF's resource list of links, books, and journal articles on heating, cooling, lighting, and maintaining school and campus facilities that results in energy efficiencies.

NCEF's resource list of links and journal articles about school building windows and doors, addressing their selection, installation, safety and security, maintenance, and replacement in new and retrofitted facilities.